However, there have been some cases of a very serious disease that had been traced to honey. This is "infant botulism", which is a type of blood poisoning caused by a bacteria called Clostridium botulinum. According to Health Canada, only 7 cases of infant botulism have been seen in Canada since 1979. In three of the seven cases the child had been given honey. In the USA there are about 70 to 90 cases of infant botulism yearly (not necessarily all due to honey). This bacteria forms spores which when swallowed by a baby will start to produce a poisonous toxin in a baby's intestines.

This toxin, known as botulin causes the various muscles in a baby to be paralyzed. The symptoms then develop because of this paralysis including, poor suckling, weak cry, irritability, lack of facial expression (i.e. cannot smile because the facial muscles are paraslyzed. The most dangerous part of this infection is that if the diaphragm, our main breathing muscle, becomes paralyzed, then the baby will have trouble breathing.

The treatment is to hospitalize the affected babies and to help them breath and eat properly. This "supportive treatment" may be required for a few days or up to even a few weeks until all of the toxin has left the body. Most babies do recover completely and this, without any antibiotics or specific antidote or antitoxin treatment.

Why is honey a source of botulism? It is not very well understood because we know that most honey produced in North America is not contaminated with the botulism bacteria. Experts think that the honey gets contaminated by the spores from the dirt. The bees pick up these spores from the soil and then bring it to the hive, contaminalting the honey that they produce.

• Baby is too weak to cry or suck as usual
• Baby does not have any bowel movements and has weak muscles
• The baby's neck is quite weak and so the head is wobbly
• The arms and legs are weak
• Baby is unable to swallow
  

The Pfund color grader is a device used by the honey industry. It provides continuous readings over the entire color range of honey. The Pfund color grader visually compares a standard amber-colored glass wedge with liquid honey contained in a wedge-shaped cell. The color intensity of the honey is expressed as a distance (in mm) along the amber wedge and usually ranges between 1 and 140mm.

Equivalences between color names, Pfund readings and optical density are presented in the brochure “Honey, from nature's food industry.” The Pfund color grader is inexpensive and convenient to use but readings may vary from one instrument to another.

Yes, the color of the honey can be assessed by a number of other methods. For example, the method adopted by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists uses a Lovibond 2000 visual comparator. Studies have also shown that honey color can be assessed by the CIE-1931 or the more recent CIE-1976 (L*a*b) or CIELAB methods.

Satisfactory results will be obtained with any of the instruments if used accurately and consistently.

No. Color is not included in the current USDA grading methods.

However, color is an important characteristic of upon which honey is classified by honey producers, packers and end-users. An estimated 75% of industrial users of honey include color designations in their specifications.

The color of honey is characteristic of its floral source due to minerals and other minor components. Exposure to heat and storage time may affect honey's color.

Honey appears lighter in color after it has granulated. The color of a specific sample of honey after it granulates depends on the crystal size. The final crystals give the lightest appearance. For this reason, most creamed honeys are opaque and light in color.

Honey can become darker as a result of storage, although at widely differing rates. This depends upon the composition of the honey (acidity, nitrogen and fructose contents) and its initial color. Generally, the darkening of honey is temperature sensitive and occurs more rapidly when honey is stored at high temperatures.

Generally, lighter honeys have a milder flavor and darker honeys have a more robust flavor. Even though many exceptions exist (for example, basswood is light in color but has a strong flavor; tulip poplar honey is dark-colored and mild tasting), color is used throughout the industry as a convenient measure of flavor and aroma. Please contact your supplier for more information on specific floral sources and blends.

Yes, in some product applications. For example, research has shown that using dark honeys in breads at levels higher that 8% (flour basis) can contribute to crumb and crust darkening, a desirable attribute for multigrain and other variety breads.

Honey is also used to contribute a golden hue to many sauces and dressings, fruit beverages, glazes, spreads and jellies, frozen desserts, baked goods and low-fat snack.

Honey can also be used to promote surface browning of baked, roasted, cooked and extruded products.

Manufacturers who do not wish to take advantage of the coloring function of honey can simply select water white, extra white and white honeys. However, like all ingredients rich in reducing sugars, honey will contribute some color when exposed to heat in acidic conditions and will function as a browning agent when used at high levels in baked or cooked products.

Honey is used in the food manufacturing industry as a browning agent in food products which are microwaved. Honey is a good source of Maillard reaction precursors and a highly reactive ingredient in microwave applications.

End-users can use a microwave to heat honey to 160 F (71 C). This is done sometimes to liquefy honey which has granulated and this treatment has little effect on honey's chemical properties. However, honey which has been overheated will tend to become darker. When using microwave energy to heat honey, it is critical to control carefully the maximum temperature reached to avoid excessive darkening and to cool the honey immediately.

Honey stored in sealed containers can remain stable for decades and even centuries! However, honey is susceptible to physical and chemical changes during storage; it tends to darken and lose its aroma and flavor. This is a temperature-dependent process, making the shelf life of honey difficult to define. For practical purposes, a shelf life of two years is often stated. Properly processed, packaged and stored honey retained its quality for a long time.

Processed honey should be stored between 64-75 F (18-24 C). Honey can be exposed to higher temperatures for brief periods; however, heat damage is cumulative so heat exposure should be limited. It is best to minimize temperature fluctuations and avoid storing honey near heat sources.

The recommended storage temperature for unprocessed honey is below 50F (10 C). The ideal temperature for both unprocessed and processed honey is below 32 F (0 C). Cooler temperatures best preserve the aroma, flavor and color of unprocessed honey.

Most honeys are supersaturated with respect to glucose which may cause glucose to crystallize spontaneously at room temperature in the form of glucose monohydrate. The rate at which crystallization occurs depends on the origin of the honey and the methods by which it was processed and handled. Crystallization may be reserved by heating which “melts” the crystals.

It is also possible to induce and control crystallization to produce creamed honeys. This process yields very fine crystals and a smooth product with a peanut butter-like texture. Creamed honeys can be flavored or mixed with other ingredients such as nuts, fruits or dairy products.

Spontaneous crystallization causes the product to become cloudy and less appealing to the consumer. It results in separation into two phases: a liquid phase on top and a more solid phase at the bottom of the container. The higher moisture content and the fructose content of the liquid phase can allow naturally occurring osmophilic yeasts to multiply and ferment the honey. Pasteurized honey in sealed containers may crystallize but is generally not liable to ferment.

A number of researchers have attempted to predict the tendency of honey to crystallize using ratios involving the composition of honey with respect to glucose. A honey with a glucose/water ratio<1.7 tends to remain liquid for a long time, while one with a ratio>2.1 usually crystallizes quickly. It has been observed that honeys with a high percentage of fructose remain liquid for a long time. Thus other ratios such as fructose/glucose and (glucose minus water)/fructose have been proposed. The use of these ratios to predict crystallization is possible only when comparing honeys which differ significantly in sugar composition.

Crystallization of honey is most rapid at 52-59 F (11-15 C). Some preventative measures may be taken, including:

• Storing at temperatures which delay crystallization (<52 F, 11 C)
• Preventing absorption of atmospheric moisture by tightly closing containers during storage

The fermentation process is essentially dependent on the initial count of microorganisms in the product, the storage time and temperature, and the moisture content of the honey. The most important cause of fermentation in honey is the increase in its free water content. Honey with moisture content below 17.1% does not ferment. The stability of honey with a moisture content >17.1% depends on its microbial content. Pasteurized honey (available commercially) generally does not ferment because the microbial content has been reduced.

Honey is highly stable against microbial growth because of its low water activity, low moisture content, low pH, and antimicrobial constituents.

During processing, several steps are taken to prolong the liquid state of honey. Pasteurization delays the process of crystallization by dissolving any crystals that may be present in the crude product. Pasteurization also affects yeast cells which considerably reduces the possibility of fermentation. Recommended pasteurization treatments include flash pasteurization (170 F for a new seconds) or heating at 145 F for 30 minutes.

Filtering under pressure enhances the clear brilliant color of honey and removes some potential crystallization nuclei such as undissolved glucose crystals, air bubbles, pollen grains or any other large particles.

The filling temperature of bottles and other honey containers has an impact on crystallization as well. Honey bottled at temperatures of 104 F (40 C) or higher (up to 130-140 F, 55-60 C) crystallizes significantly more slowly.

Some researchers have demonstrated that honey stored in low density polyethylene containers can lose moisture over time. This loss of moisture could contribute to crystallization.

It is important to store honey in air-tight containers. This protects it from external moisture which the honey may absorb. Properly sanitized and sealed stainless steel drums in good condition are perfect for extended storage of large quantities of honey.